Perceptions of spirituality in contemporary psychology

The dimension of spirituality has been present throughout human history, and spirituality plays a central role in the context of culture and tradition, as well as in individual human development (Cashwell, Glosoff & Hammond, 2010). However, for various historical reasons, the development of an understanding of spirituality in psychological science is relatively recent. It is only since the 20th century that the field of spirituality has been widely recognised. Since the mid-1990s, the study of spirituality has gained a foothold in the academic literature, and there is currently a growing interest in the concept and its role in human mental health.

Spirituality is now largely conceptualised in psychology as a coping strategy (coping strategy) (Garssen, Visser & Pool, 2021; Borges et al., 2021), which can give meaning to human existence, a sense of purpose and help organise a value system (Parchment, 2011). Evidence to date suggests that spirituality has a positive impact on mental health (mental helath) (Garssen, Visser & Pool, 2021), is positively associated with psychological resilience (resilience) (Schwalm, 2022) and is one of the components that determine health-related quality of life (health-related quality of life) (Borges et al., 2021). 

However, the study of spirituality and religiosity in psychology is not straightforward. Both the diversity of spirituality and religion and its different manifestations - the conflicting motivations of practitioners - have implications for the field of the psychology of spirituality and religion. The diverse and sometimes even contradictory views of what spirituality and religion really are in the context of human psychological functioning have not been, and are unlikely to be in the near future, reduced to a single clear theory (Parchment et al., 2013).

Diversity (multiplicity) and diversity (diversity) might be the terms that most accurately describe the current state of the psychology of religion and spirituality. At present, no single paradigm dominates the psychology of spirituality and religion, no single definition is accepted by the majority of researchers and practitioners, no single methodological approach or dominant set of measurement tools exists. This state of the science perhaps accurately describes the practical expression of spirituality and religion in society: each person's religious and spiritual world is unique in its own way, even among people who, for example, self-identify as belonging to the same religious denomination. Thousands of religious worlds can exist within a single tradition (Parchment et al., 2013).

In this article, I offer some insight into how spirituality is positioned in contemporary psychology, given the complexity of the situation. Looking at several authors' definitions, the main challenges and what issues the science of psychology can help to address on the topic of spirituality.

Understanding spirituality in psychology - definitions 

In defining spirituality, several authors point to three elements between which the relationship within spirituality takes place: the person, the world (life, other people - everything outside the person's own self) and a higher power.

• A sense of connection with myself, Others and The Whole (Mitroff & Denton, 1999).
• A path of being and experience that is formed through the understanding gained from experiencing transcendence. This path of experience is linked to the specifically identifiable values of individuals for yourself, their Life and anything that concerns Higher (Elkins et al., 1988).
• The experience of the sacred, divine dimension of the subject, which reflects the human personal life's connection and relationship with higherall-inclusive power; a dimension that can give human existence and relationship with the world meaning, a sense of purpose and helps to organise the value system (Bitena, n.d.).
• God the kind response to an individual's relationship with myself (Benner, 1989).

Similarly, the word "transcend" often appears in the definitions (trans - (Latin) over, outside; scandere - (Latin) climb), meaning to be in a state of self-perception that transcends conventional assumptions about the perception of the world (VandenBos, 2015).

• Transcendenta a dimension that is related to the individual's experience, which in turn is shaped by personal questions about the meaning of existence, as well as attempts to place oneself in a broader ontological context (Shafranske, Gorsuch, 1984).

Other aspects that often appear in the definitions are the contemplation and questioning of the meaning of existence.

• An individual's unusual asking questionswho are asked about the meaning of existence. This meaning of existence is explained by the assumption of individuals that there are more possibilities in life than we can see or fully understand (Fetzer Institute, 1999).

It also emphasises that spirituality is based on personal experience, on experiencing, and that this experience involves experiencing the sacred, the divine. It is also often pointed out that spirituality involves an inner quest and is connected to the highest human potential.

• Long or internal motivation to search something religious or related. Most human Sphere of potentialwhich is reflected in the encounter with life-changing goals, higher beings, God, love, compassion and purpose (Tart, 1975).

• Subjective Holy Experience (Vaughan, 1991).

There are authors who view spirituality as a form of intelligence and point out that spiritual intelligence implies a set of skills and abilities that can be helpful in managing one's daily life.

• Spirituality is type of intelligence or mental awareness, a set of abilities and skills that enable people to cope with the problems of their daily lives, to achieve their goals and is one of the main determinants of individual differences between individuals (Emmons, 2000).

Challenges of spirituality in the 21st century

Although the number of people who consider themselves religious or belonging to a particular religious tradition has been declining rapidly in recent decades, spirituality remains relevant in the 21st century, as more and more people choose to define themselves as spiritual rather than religious (spiritual but not religious). Overall, an estimated 84% of the world's population are spiritually and/or religiously inclined (Hackett, 2023). Spirituality and religion thus have a huge impact on human psychological functioning in the 21st century. 

Naturally, high emotionality goes hand in hand with high influence. It is hard to find anyone who is neutral about spirituality and religion, including scientists who define themselves as non-religious and non-spiritual. It is also difficult to engage in calm, dispassionate conversations on the subject in everyday life. Just as with politics, people often decide to avoid conversations about spirituality and religion because they do not want to experience the discomfort of a tense exchange, and to preserve and protect their relationships with their fellow human beings (Parchment et al.,2013)

Unfortunately, the increased perception of spirituality and religion and the polarisation of views have had long-term consequences for society. Currently, instead of conversation and dialogue on this critically important and at the same time emotionally charged topic, either silence, expression of opinion or provocation is practised (Parchment et al., 2013).

The problem is compounded by a general lack of education about spirituality and religion. And the vocational training programmes that are available are often limited in their vision, scope and depth. Spiritual and religious issues are also not commonplace in everyday life - so-called "kitchen talk" - and thus do not fill the education gap (Bartkowski, Xu, & Levin, 2008). 

All of this adds up to a neglect of the relevance of spirituality and religion - a neglect that manifests itself in the fact that this topic is less publicly discussed than other topics that have an equally significant impact on individuals, families and cultures. There are authors who point out that in the 21st century a significant number of people are left spiritually and religiously uninformed, such as the sociologist Christian Smith (Christian Smith) even uses the language of "spiritual illiteracy" (Smith & Denton, 2005).

The current view of the dimension of spirituality in psychological science

It is now clear in the science of psychology that spirituality and religion are woven into many people's greatest hopes and dreams, permeating their greatest disappointments and frustrations. It is the way people understand and relate to themselves and the wider world. Spirituality and religion permeate people's lives day in and day out throughout their lives, whether its forms of expression are psychologically healthy or unhealthy (Parchment et al., 2013).

A leading figure in the psychology of spirituality and religion in recent decades, Kenneth Parchment (Kenneth Pargament) suggests that metaphors may be the only thing that truly helps us understand spirituality and religion (Parchment et al., 2013).

For example, the metaphor of a person who arrives in this world and embarks on a religious and spiritual journey that takes him down different paths over time. The different stages of a person's spiritual and religious life can be marked, for example, by rites of passage, the development of a belief system and the practice of spiritual practices that focus on fundamental questions, critical points along the way that lead to deeper spiritual and religious engagement in one direction and alienation in another, and the merging of a person's journey with the journeys of others. Each person's spiritual and religious journey says something essential about who that person is. And no one person's life path is identical to another person's route.

At the same time, it may not even be a metaphor. Almost every major spiritual and religious tradition speaks of human life as a journey, and provides landmarks, maps of the paths one should take. It is important to note that while many people choose to follow a pre-established spiritual path offered by a tradition, it is also possible for people to create their own paths.

Questions about spirituality and religion that the science of psychology can help answer

What does all this have to do with psychology? Pargament draws attention to the important contribution that psychology can make to the promotion of healthy forms of spirituality and religion that enhance human well-being (well-being). With its sceptical, potentially objective and scientific method, psychology can shed light on many critical issues. For example:

• Do spirituality and religion lead people to wholeness, health and healing, or to fragmentation, problems or pathology?
• Do spirituality and religion encourage social bonding and compassion, or prejudice and condemnation?
• Why are people spiritual and religious at all?
• How to explain the relationship of spirituality and religion to extreme behaviour on the one hand, and their relationship to altruism on the other?
• Are there more appropriate ways of dealing with spiritual and religious complexities in people's lives and in society as a whole?
• Is it possible to make the best use of spiritual and religious resources to create a more fulfilling life and relationships?

Scientific research already explains that spirituality and religion are multidimensional phenomena, consisting of myriad thoughts, feelings, actions, experiences, relationships and physiological reactions that serve many purposes and have many consequences. This, of course, makes the study of religion and spirituality at a scientific level extremely difficult.

However, it is known that every religious and spiritual path is made up of cognitive, emotional, behavioural, interactional and biological components. Psychology and other sciences can help us understand these pathways by carefully studying their components - how they form, connect or diverge. Thus, perhaps over time, confirming or rejecting the propositions of spiritual traditions to measure life paths one way or the other.

Sources:

Bartkowski, J. P., Xu, X., & Levin, M. L. (2008). Religion and child development: Evidence from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. Social Science Research, 37, 18-36.

Capps, D. E. (1977). Contemporary psychology of religion: The task of theoretical reconstruction. In H. W. Malony (Ed.), Current perspectives in the psychology of religion (pp. 36-52). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.

Borges, C., Dos Santos, P., Alves, P., Borges, R., Lucchetti, G., Barbosa, M., Porto, C. & Fernandes, M. (2021). Association between spirituality/religiosity and quality of life among healthy adults: A systematic review. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 19(1), 1-246.

Cashwell, C. S., Glosoff, H. L., & Hammond, C. (2010). Spiritual bypass: A preliminary investigation. Counseling and Values, 54(2), 162-174.

Garssen, B., Visser, A., & Pool, G. (2021). Does spirituality or religion positively affect mental health? A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 31(1), 4-20. DOI: 10.1080/10508619.2020.1729570. 

Hackett, C., Grim, B. J. (2012). The Global Religious Landscape. A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010. Pew Research Center.

Pargament, K. (2011). Spiritually integrated psychotherapy: Understanding and addressing the sacred. New York, NY: Guilford Press. ISBN-13: 978-1609189938.

Pargament, K. I. (Ed.), & Mahoney, A., & Exline, J. J., Jones, J. W. (Eds.), & Shafranske, E. P. (2013). Envisioning an integrative paradigm for the psychology of religion and spirituality. In K. I. Pargament, J. J. Exline, & J. W. Context, theory, and research (pp. 3-19). American Psychological Association.

Schwalm, F. D, Zandavalli, R. B., de Castro Filho, E. D. & Lucchetti, G. (2022). Is there a relationship between spirituality/religiosity and resilience? A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Journal of Health Psychology, 27(5), 1218-1232. DOI: 10.1177/1359105320984537.

Smith, C., & Denton, M. L. (2005). Soul searching: The religious and spiritual lives of American teenagers. New York, NY: Oxford Press.